Tugas Softskill Etika Profesi Akuntansi

Tugas Etika Profesi Akuntansi

Nama        : Hilda Meilyana

NPM         : 24209763

Kelas        : 4eb11

Menurut bahasa Yunani Kuno, etika berasal dari kata ethikos yang berarti “timbul dari kebiasaan”. Etika adalah cabang utama filsafat yang mempelajari nilai atau kualitas yang menjadi studi mengenai standar dan penilaian moral. Etika mencakup analisis dan penerapan konsep seperti benar, salah, baik, buruk, dan tanggung jawab. Etika terbagi menjadi tiga bagian utama: meta-etika (studi konsep etika), etika normatif (studi penentuan nilai etika), dan etika terapan (studi penggunaan nilai-nilai etika) (id.wikipedia.org). Kata etika, seringkali disebut pula dengan kata etik, atau ethics (bahasa Inggris), mengandung banyak pengertian.

Dari segi etimologi (asal kata), istilah etika berasal dari kata Latin “Ethicos” yang berarti kebiasaan. Dengan demikian menurut pengertian yang asli, yang dikatakan baik itu apabila sesuai dengan kebiasaan masyarakat. Kemudian lambat laun pengertian ini berubah, bahwa etika adalah suatu ilmu yang mebicarakan masalah perbuatan atau tingkah laku manusia, mana yang dapat dinilai baik dan mana yang dapat dinilai tidak baik.

Etika juga disebut ilmu normative, maka dengan sendirinya berisi ketentuan-ketentuan (norma-norma) dan nilai-nilai yang dapat digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.

Dalam kamus besar bahasa Indonesia terbitan Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (1988), etika dirumuskan dalam tiga arti, yaitu;

1.      Ilmu tentang apa yang baik dan apa yang buruk dan tentang hak dan kewajiban moral (akhlak).

2.      Kumpulan asas atau nilai yang berkenaan dengan akhlak.

3.      Nilai mengenai benar dan salah yang dianut suatu golongan atau masyarakat.

Berikut ini beberapa contoh etika di kehidupan sehari-hari sebagai seorang mahasiswa, diantaranya sebagai berikut :

1.      Bertetangga dengan baik

Menghormati tetangga dan berprilaku baik terhadap mereka. Bangunan yang kita bangun jangan mengganggu tetangga kita, tidak membuat mereka tertutup dari sinar mata hari atau udara, dan kita tidak boleh melampaui batasnya, apakah merusak atau mengubah miliknya, karena hal tersebut menyakiti perasaannya. Tidak melakukan suatu kegaduhan yang mengganggu mereka, seperti suara radio atau TV, atau mengganggu mereka dengan melempari halaman mereka dengan kotoran, atau menutup jalan bagi mereka. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

2.       Mencium tangan kedua orang tua pada saat meminta izin untuk pergi

Hal ini sudah sering saya lakukan kepada orang tua saya ketika saya ingin pergi keluar rumah misalnya kuliah. Ini merupakan salah satu tradisi Indonesia yang ditanamkan orang tua kepada anaknya sejak kecil.

3.       Tidak bersendawa pada saat makan

Bersendawa merupakan suatu kelegaan yang luar biasa tetapi bagi orang lain merupakan tindakan yang tidak sopan soalnya ketika bersendawa bukan saja mengeluarkan suara yang mengganggu tetapi juga mengeluarkan bau mulut yang tidak enak. Etika ini jarang saya lakukan.

4.       Memakai pakaian yang rapi dan sopan

Berpakaian yang rapi dan sopan tentunya sudah menjadi kewajiban kita. Namun masih banyak warga Indonesia yang menggunakan baju yang terlalu seksi dan memakai rok diatas lutut , seharusnya kita sebagai warga timur tidak mengikuti pakaian ala warga barat. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

5.       Tidak merokok ditempat umum

Semestinya kita tahu aturan tidak akan berbicara sambil menghisap rokok di hadapan tamu atau orang lain, karena asap rokok tersebut dapat mengganggu polusi dan sanksinya hanya berupa celaan karena dianggap tidak sopan walaupun merokok itu tidak dilarang. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan karena saya bukan seorang perokok.

6.       Menjamu tamu yang datang ke rumah dengan baik

Seseorang tamu yang datang hendaknya diberi minuman atau makanan seadanya . Karena tamu tersebut mungkin merasa haus dan lapar sehabis perjalan menuju rumah kita. Dan kalau tamu itu hendak pulang, menurut tata krama harus diantar sampai dimuka pintu rumah, bila tidak maka akan menjadi omongan karena dianggap sombong dan tidak menghormati tamunya. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

7.       Berperilaku  dan  bertutur  kata  yang  sopan

Bertutur kata yang sopan baik di dalam kelas dan di luar kelas  mencerminkan perilaku sebagai mahasiswa dan dijiwai oleh nilai-nilai agama / kepercayaan yang dianut. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

8.       Tidak merusak fasilitas umum

Sarana umum merupakan fasilitas yang disediakan oleh pemerintah kepada warga masyarakatnya. Namun sering kali kita melihat sarana yang tersedia rusak oleh warga masyarakatnya sendiri. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

9.       Membuang sampah pada tempat yang telah disediakan

Banyak warga Indonesia yang kurang mengerti artinya kebersihan lingkungan. Sering kali dijalan saya melihat orang membuang sampah disembarang tempat padahal sudah disediakan tempat untuk membuangnya. Banyak juga warga Jakarta yang membuangnya di sungai. Ini menyebabkan air sungai yang meluap karena banyaknya sampah yang menumpuk sehingga berakibat banjir. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

10.   Tidak memotong pembicaraan orang lain

Apabila ada orang yang sedang berbicara janganlah kita memotong pembicarannya, karena akan membuat dia merasa tak didengar oleh kita. Jika kita ingin balik berbicara kepadanya tunggulah sampai dia berhenti berbicara. Etika ini jarang saya lakukan , karena saya pernah memotong pembicaraan orang lain.

11.   Mengucapkan salam ketika memasuki  atau keluar rumah

Memberi salam ketika pergi keluar atau mau memasuki rumah mencermikan kita sebagai orang yang sopan dan ramah. Hal ini merupakan budaya Indonesia yang diterapkan sejak dulu. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

12.   Menggunakan air secukupnya

Jika kita hendak mandi maka gunakan air secukupnya karena dapat menghemat air dan tidak boros dalam penggunaannya. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

13.   Mematikan listrik jika tidak digunakan

Mematikan lampu, mematikan ac , dan listrik yang tidak digunakan pada siang hari merupakan sikap penghematan energi. Jika listrik terus-menerus digunakan maka bumi kita akan semakin panas. Oleh karena itu kita harus hemat dalam penggunaanya. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

14.   Tidak meludah disembarang tempat

Jika kita melihat orang meludah sembarangan tentunya kita merasa jijik. Saya termasuk orang yang  tidak suka meludah sembarangan karena tidak mau dibilang sebagai orang yang jorok. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

15.   Menepati janji kepada orang lain

Saya tipe orang yang menepati janji , karena apabila kita tidak menepati janji tersebut maka kita akan di cap sebagai orang yang melanggar janji dan pembohong. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

16.   Menghargai hak orang lain

Jika kita ingin dihargai oleh orang lain maka kita harus menghargai orang lain juga. Karena adanya tafsir resmi Mahkamah Konstitusi dalam beberapa putusannya terkait dengan pembatasan HAM di Indonesia telah memberikan kejelasan bahwasanya tidak ada satupun Hak Asasi Manusia di Indonesia yang bersifat mutlak dan tanpa batas. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

17.   Mengucapkan permisi ketika ingin berjalan dihadapan banyak orang

Kata permisi biasa kita ucapkan ketika sedang berjalan kaki & melewati orang yang ada disekitar kita. Hal tersebut mencerminkan kalau kita sebagai orang yang menghormati orang-orang yang sedang berkumpul. Jika kita tidak mengucapkan hal itu biasanya ada orang yang nyeletuk mengatakan “kalo mau lewat ngomong permisi , ga sopan banget sih”. Untuk menghindari kalimat tersebut sebaiknya kita ucapkan permisi terlebih dahulu. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

18.   Mengucapkan maaf jika bersalah

Tanpa sadari kita sering melakukan kesalahan terhadap orang lain. Kalau saya melakuka kesalahan maka saya akan meminta maaf kepada orang tersebut. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

19.   Tidak membuang angin/gas  sembarangan

Sering kali pada saat saya berkumpul dengan teman , ada salah satu teman yang membuang angin disaat kita sedang asyik berbicara. Hal ini mencerminkan etika yang tidak baik dan kurang sopan. Jika kita ingin membuang angin sebaiknya izin permisi ke belakang. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

20.   Mengembalikan barang yang dipinjam

Barang yang telah kita pinjam memang sudah kewajiban kita untuk mengembalikan barang tersebut karena barang itu bukanlah hak milik kita. Jika kita tidak mengembalikannya maka kita bisa disebut sebagai orang yang menghak miliki barang orang lain. Etika ini sudah saya lakukan.

TUGAS BAHASA INGGRIS BISNIS 2 PASSIVE VOICE

Germans, Dutch to open their Euro 2012 account
by Phil Hazlewood | June 09, 2012

Germany on Saturday take on Portugal while the Netherlands face Denmark, as the first matches in Euro 2012 are played in competition co-hosts Ukraine. The tournament kicked off in the Polish capital Warsaw on Friday night, with Poland and Greece playing an eventful 1-1 draw and Russia flying to the top of Group A after thumping the Czech Republic 4-1 in the western city of Wroclaw.

Germany open their campaign in Lviv, western Ukraine, seeking to erase memories of their defeat in the final to Spain four years ago and their elimination to La Roja in the semi-finals of the World Cup in 2010. The Mannschaft have a good record against the Seleccao, having eliminated them in the Euro 2008 quarter-finals and beating them in the third place play-off at the 2006 World Cup.

Captain Philipp Lahm, though, says those results will count for little, with the difficult Dutch and solid, if uninspiring, Danes to come in the so-called "Group of Death".
"The tension is building slowly, we have been working for two years for this moment. It's time to get going," said Lahm, 28, who took over the captain's armband after the tournament in South Africa.

"We have a great squad, we just need to show what we can do."

Germany are likely to be boosted by inclusion of midfield talisman Bastian Schweinsteiger, despite worries over the calf strain he picked up in Bayern Munich's Champions League final defeat to Chelsea last month.

But they are understandably wary of giving Portugal's Real Madrid star Cristiano Ronaldo any chances around goal after he blasted 46 goals in La Liga last season.

Portugal coach Paulo Bento, meanwhile, has urged his team to be brave after a string of poor pre-tournament results, including a 3-1 friendly defeat in Lisbon to Turkey and last month's 0-0 draw with Macedonia that hit confidence.

"Against a team like Germany you need to be organised," he said. "You need to have courage because if you only think about defending, then surely you won't be able to get a good result.

"You have to try to attack them but in an organised way. Above all we have to be strong, aggressive and cohesive, especially when we lose the ball."

Dutch coach Bert van Marwijk is approaching the Oranje's match in Kharkiv with caution, with veteran centreback Joris Mathijsen ruled out with a hamstring injury, and prior experience of Morten Olsen's Danes.

Van Marwijk, who guided the Dutch to the 2010 World Cup final where they lost to Spain, said he expected the Danes to play in the same style they had done in their opening World Cup game in South Africa where the Dutch won 2-0.

He told reporters he thinks the two games are comparable and there have been few changes in personnel.

"Like two years ago, I expect Denmark to be defensive and await the chance to counter-attack. All matches at major tournaments are difficult -- and the two teams know each other too well," he added.

The Dutch come into the match amid claims their players were targeted by racist chants from some fans watching their training this week in Poland and striker Klaas-Jan Huntelaar reportedly unhappy over the selection of Robin van Persie.⁽¹⁾

Veteran Danish manager Olsen, who is the only man to have been capped by and coached a national side more than 100 times, has played down his side's chances in the group, casting the Scandinavians as underdogs. ⁽²⁾

The 62-year-old assessed the Dutch as "clearly the favourites".

"It is not me being pessimistic but realism," he said. "If we look at the talent of the Dutch, it is not lying to say they are the favourites.

"And it is not me bluffing. This will still be the case for us against Germany and Portugal... For us, our tournament will be a success if we progress from the group."

Constitutional victory: Controversial NDAA provisions blocked, at least temporarily, by federal judge

 (NaturalNews) In a rare display of constitutional patriotism by a government authority, an Obama-appointed federal judge has put an indefinite block on the egregious National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). According to Bloomberg, U.S. District Judge Katherine Forrest of Manhattan, N.Y., ruled in favor of plaintiffs who earlier had sued the Obama administration over the bill's unconstitutional arrest and detainment provisions, which provide no protection for American citizens.

The loosely-worded Section 1021 of the bill cunningly grants the president unrestrained authority to use military force in detaining practically anyone for any suspected "terrorist-related" activity, without warrant and without a trial (http://www.naturalnews.com). This section, which was the primary focus of the lawsuit, admittedly provides no protection for American citizens, and is patently unconstitutional no matter how you look at it.

"The statute at issue places the public at undue risk of having their speech chilled for the purported protection from al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and 'associated forces' -- i.e., 'foreign terrorist organizations," said Forrest in her opinion. "The vagueness of Section 1021 does not allow the average citizen, or even the government itself, to understand with the type of definiteness to which our citizens are entitled, or what conduct comes within its scope."

Unless the U.S. Congress amends the bill to protect Americans against having their constitutional rights abolished in the name of national security, NDAA will remain blocked, at least formally. However, NDAA is really just an extension of the horrific USA Patriot Act, which was the Bush administration's precursor to NDAA that was passed immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks (http://www.scn.org/ccapa/pa-vs-const.html).

Obama administration appears to have fully intended to use NDAA against American citizens

Speaking on the details of how the case has proceeded thus far, Judge Forrest explained that Obama attorneys made absolutely no attempt to defend the administration against the allegations. They also made no attempt to claim that the ambiguous provisions were intended only for foreign suspects, which in and of itself points to sinister intentions with the bill.

"The government was given a number of opportunities at the hearing and in its briefs to state unambiguously that the type of expressive and associational activities engaged in by plaintiffs -- or others -- are not within Section 1021," said Judge Forrest. ⁽³⁾ "It did not. This court therefore must credit the chilling impact on First Amendment rights as reasonable -- and real."

Efforts to amend NDAA to specifically protect American citizens on U.S. soil from illegal arrest and detainment, however, have been met with resistance by "neoconservatives" such as Charles "Cully" Stimson, a former Bush administration official who is now Chief of Staff and Senior Legal Fellow at The Heritage Foundation.⁽⁴⁾ He and others claim that amending NDAA will somehow encourage more terrorists to come to the U.S. (http://dailycaller.com).

These wildly absurd claims, however, were enough to convince the traitorous House of Representatives to recently vote down an amendment authored by Reps. ⁽⁵⁾ Justin Amash (R-Mi.) and Adam Smith (D-Wa.) that would have prohibited the detainment, capture, or arrest of any person in the U.S under NDAA. According to The Daily Caller, the House rejected this amendment in an overwhelming vote of 238 to 182.

Devils stave off L.A. Kings' bid to win first Stanley Cup

By the CNN Wire Staff

(CNN) -- The New Jersey Devils fended off the Los Angeles Kings on Saturday night, winning 2-1 to extend the National Hockey League's Stanley Cup championship series another game.

The Kings had entered the contest hoping to end the night atop the hockey world for the first time, and weren't daunted by the fact the game was on the Devils' home ice in Newark.

Being away from the Staples Center has hardly hurt the Kings of late: Prior to Saturday's loss, the team had been a perfect 10-0 on the road in the playoffs.

But Los Angeles ran into a wall again and again, in the form of New Jersey's legendary goalie, Martin Brodeur. The Devils had jumped ahead 1-0 on a power-play goal by their captain Zach Parise, and then answered a second-period Kings goal with one by defenseman Bryce Salvador.

Despite the result -- it was the Devils' second straight win -- Los Angeles holds the upper hand with three victories to New Jersey's two in the best-of-seven series. The teams play again Monday night in Los Angeles.

Los Angeles has been defying the norm for much of the last few weeks -- dominating at times despite having squeezed into the playoffs as a No. 8 seed, and triggering a virulent case of hockey fever in sunny southern California.

The last time the Kings garnered this much attention back home was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, propelled by the league's all-time top scorer, Wayne Gretzky.

"The Great One" and now-ESPN analyst Barry Melrose led the franchise, which began play in 1967, to a Stanley Cup finals showdown with Montreal in 1993. But the Kings lost that series decisively, and have never won the NHL's ultimate prize.

This year's Kings are led by goalie Jonathan Quick and center Anze Kopitar, who ranks ahead of all others this postseason with eight goals and 11 assists. ⁽⁶⁾

The Devils have been among the NHL's most consistent teams in recent decades. They've won three Stanley Cups, the most recent in 2003.

German Tourist Shot in Allegedly Random Attack in Papua

A German tourist was shot three times while walking along a beach in seemingly random attack in Jayapura, Papua on Tuesday, National Police said.

Dietmar Pieper, 55, was visiting Base G beach with his wife Eva Medina, 55, when an unidentified assailant opened fire at 11:30 a.m. and then sped off in a Toyota Avanza minivan, National Police spokesman Ins. Gen. Saud Usman Nasution said.

“He just finished swimming," Saud said.

Pieper was hit in the back, left side of his chest and thigh. He is currently in stable condition at Dok II hospital, in Jayapura, said Sr. Comr. Ramon, Papua police doctor and health unit chief.

“He is still in ICU,” the doctor added.

Police are investigating the shooting, but, so far, are unsure of the motive.

“We have questioned four witnesses including his wife,” Saud said. “We don't know what the motive of the shooting was because we have not arrested the perpetrator. The case is being investigated by Jayapura and Papua police.” ⁽⁷⁾

Papua Police spokesman Adj. Sr. Comr. Yohannes Nugroho said that the assailant likely lives in Jayapura.

He was described as having curly hair and a slight beard, Antara reported.

Bid to Silence Gaga an Assault on Pluralism
Tunggal Pawestri | May 31, 2012
For the past three years, I have been a loyal reader of the Jakarta Globe. When I get a visit from my foreign colleagues, I always recommend that they read the Globe to better understand the current social, economic and political situation in Indonesia.

For me, the compelling, witty and sharp column of Desi Anwar greatly contributes to the development of democracy and pluralism, as does your unbiased reporting.

However, I really could not believe my eyes when I read your editorial on Monday. The Globe has the freedom to express its view and standpoint on many issues, but I was really shocked to read the editorial that highlighted the Globe’s support for the cancellation of the Lady Gaga concert in Jakarta.

Although I completely disagree with almost all the statements in your editorial, I would like to highlight a few.

First, in the editorial, you mentioned that Lady Gaga represents a “lack of morality.” My question is: whose morality do you use to judge and on what grounds? Don’t you know that the National Commission on Violence Against Women has identified 189 local regulations that were made to address women’s “lack of morality,” but instead discriminate and criminalize women?

Second, it is obvious that you have a problem with Lady Gaga’s songs and lyrics. Which lyrics to be exact? Is it the song “Born This Way,” which actually promotes self-acceptance and embraces diversity?

Third, you mentioned that “youth will typically be rebellious and anti-establishment,” hence it is “important that we inculcate in them … proper Indonesian values.” Can you explain to me who was the “we” that you referred to? And what data do you use to support your thesis about the typicality of youth? And what exactly is the meaning of “Indonesian values”? Can we talk about such values while past human right violations are never disclosed and corruption cases are increasing?

As I have learned from Lady Gaga, I need to show respect to difference — which also applies to the Globe’s statements on Lady Gaga. You have made no mistakes in sharing your view, but it seems that you forgot to mention why Lady Gaga and her management finally made the decision to cancel the show.

You also forgot to exhibit the fact that from the very beginning the Jakarta Police refused to guarantee the safety of Lady Gaga and her “little monsters.” In your editorial you have neglected (or perhaps ignored) some other facts that actually can be traced from your own reporting on the Gaga saga, particularly on the event when a group of hard-liners, the vigilantes, made a public threat to destroy Jakarta. The vigilantes have created terror without creating any space for dialogue with anyone who has a different view.

Just last week the Indonesian government’s record was reviewed at the Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights in Geneva. I wonder whether you are aware that Indonesia was put in the international spotlight for the increasing cases of intolerance during the review? The government’s commitment to protect the rights of minorities and reduce the level of violence against minorities was questioned by most of those present.

The threat of violence is always being used by vigilantes to impose their demands. ⁽⁸⁾ The opposite voice has always been condemned as that of a sinner, which therefore must be eradicated. At this point, the police have opted to accommodate the demand that is voiced by using threats and violence.  ⁽⁹⁾ Your editorial is like oxygen for the vigilante groups to breathe and live.

I believe that the Globe has always been sharp and critical on many issues and I can say that your voice, particularly on diversity issues, represents the voice of Indonesia’s civil society.

To quote your editorial on Feb. 13, “Pluralism is embedded in the nation’s social fabric and forms the bedrock for social harmony. And it is the government’s duty and responsibility to ensure this right is upheld and protected.” I hope you can explain the reasoning behind the May 28 editorial.

Explanation :

A.   Past tense

(1)    The Dutch come into the match amid claims their players were targeted by racist chants from some fans watching their training this week in Poland and striker Klaas-Jan Huntelaar reportedly unhappy over the selection of Robin van Persie.

Orang Belanda datang ke pertandingan di tengah klaim pemain mereka menjadi sasaran nyanyian rasis dari beberapa fans menonton latihan mereka minggu ini di Polandia dan striker Klaas-Jan Huntelaar dikabarkan tidak senang atas pemilihan Robin van Persie.

  (3)   The government was given a number of opportunities at the hearing and in its briefs to state unambiguously that the type of expressive and associational activities engaged in by plaintiffs -- or others -- are not within Section 1021," said Judge Forrest.

Pemerintah diberi sejumlah peluang di persidangan dan dalam celana untuk menyatakan tegas bahwa jenis kegiatan ekspresif dan asosiasional terlibat dalam oleh penggugat - atau orang lain - tidak dalam Bagian 1021, "kata Hakim Forrest.

  (5) These wildly absurd claims, however, were enough to convince the traitorous House of Representatives to recently vote down an amendment authored by Reps.

Klaim-klaim liar masuk akal, bagaimanapun, cukup untuk meyakinkan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat untuk pengkhianat baru-baru ini memilih menolak amandemen ditulis oleh Reps

B.    Present Perfect

(2) Veteran Danish manager Olsen, who is the only man to have been capped by and coached a national side more than 100 times, has played down his side's chances in the group, casting the Scandinavians as underdogs.

Veteran Denmark manajer Olsen, yang adalah satu-satunya telah dibatasi oleh dan melatih tim nasional lebih dari 100 kali, mengecilkan peluang timnya dalam kelompok, casting Skandinavia sebagai underdog.

(4) Efforts to amend NDAA to specifically protect American citizens on U.S. soil from illegal arrest and detainment, however, have been met with resistance by "neoconservatives" such as Charles "Cully" Stimson, a former Bush administration official who is now Chief of Staff and Senior Legal Fellow at The Heritage Foundation.

Upaya untuk mengubah NDAA untuk secara khusus melindungi warga negara Amerika di wilayah AS dari penangkapan dan penahanan, bagaimanapun, telah ditentang oleh "neokonservatif" seperti Charles "Cully" Stimson, seorang mantan pejabat pemerintah Bush yang kini Kepala staf dan Fellow Hukum Senior di The Heritage Foundation.

C.    Simpe Present

(6) This year's Kings are led by goalie Jonathan Quick and center Anze Kopitar, who ranks ahead of all others this postseason with eight goals and 11 assists.

Kings tahun ini dipimpin oleh kiper Jonathan Cepat dan pusat Anze Kopitar, yang menempati urutan di depan semua orang lain postseason ini dengan delapan gol dan 11 assist.

(9) At this point, the police have opted to accommodate the demand that is voiced by using threats and violence.

Pada titik ini, polisi telah memilih untuk mengakomodasi permintaan yang disuarakan dengan menggunakan ancaman dan kekerasan.

D.      Present continuous

(7) The case is being investigated by Jayapura and Papua police.

 Kasus ini sedang diselidiki oleh polisi Jayapura dan Papua

(8) The threat of violence is always being used by vigilantes to impose their demands.

Ancaman kekerasan selalu digunakan oleh warga untuk memaksakan tuntutan mereka

TUGAS BAHASA INGGRIS BISNIS 2 (Not only-But also , Both-and)

Commodities: The Portfolio Hedge

Most people picture a trading floor at a futures exchange as a scene of utter chaos, with fierce shouting matches, frantic hand signals and high-strung traders jockeying to get their orders executed; their picture is not far off. These markets are the meeting places of buyers and sellers of an ever-expanding list of commodities that today includes not only agricultural goods, metals and petroleum, but also products such as financial instruments, foreign currencies and stock indexes that trade on a commodity exchange.

At the center of this supposed disorder are products that offer a haven of sorts - a hedge against inflation. Because commodities prices usually rise when inflation is accelerating, they offer protection from the effects of inflation. Few assets benefit from rising inflation, particularly unexpected inflation, but commodities usually do. As demand for goods and services increases, the price of goods and services usually rises too, as does the price of the commodities used to produce those goods and services. Futures markets are then used as continuous auction markets and as clearing houses for the latest information on supply and demand.

How Commodities Are Traded

Trading futures is the purest way to invest in commodities. To trade commodities, an individual trading account can be opened either directly with a futures commission merchant or indirectly through an introducing broker. Another way to trade commodities is through a managed account, where you give someone a written power of attorney to make and execute decisions about what and when to trade. They will have discretionary authority to buy or sell for your account or will contact you for approval to make trades, or you can hire a commodity trading advisor for a fee. Lastly, ever increasingly popular methods of diversified investing in commodities include commodity pools (limited partnerships) or commodity-related mutual funds.

Benchmarks for Broad Commodity Investing

Two of the most common commodity indexes are the Goldman Sachs Commodities Index (GSCI) and the Dow Jones-USB Commodity Index (DJ-USBCI).

The GSCI is a composite index of commodity sector returns, representing an un-leveraged, long-only investment in commodity futures that is broadly diversified across the spectrum of commodities. The quantity of each commodity in the index is determined by the average quantity of production in the last five years of available data. When used as an economic indicator, this index will assign a weighting to each commodity in proportion to the amount of that commodity flowing through the economy.

The DJ-USBCI is designed to be a highly liquid index that represents fairly the importance of a diversified group of commodities to the world economy. To avoid overexposure of a particular commodity, the index does not allow any related group of commodities (e.g., energy, precious metals or grains) to make up more than 33% of the index. This forbids a disproportionate weighting of any particular commodity or sector which could negate the concept of a broad-based commodity index and thereby increase volatility.

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The major distinction between the two indexes is that the GSCI uses a strategy of overweighting the appropriate commodity sector (e.g., energy, metal or agriculture) based on economic demand. The DJ-USBCI on the other hand relies on both production and liquidity in determining weightings but has stricter guidelines on the maximum percentages allowed in one particular sector.

Why Commodities Add Value

Commodities tend to bear a low to negative correlation to traditional asset classes like stocks and bonds. A correlation coefficient is a number between -1 and 1 that measures the degree to which two variables are linearly related. If there is perfect linear relationship, you'll have a correlation coefficient of 1. A positive correlation means that when one variable has a high (low) value, so does the other. If there is a perfect negative relationship between the two variables, you'll have a correlation coefficient of -1. A negative correlation means that when one variable has a low (high) value, the other will have a high (low) value. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is no linear relationship between the variables.

Typically, U.S. equities whether in the form of stocks or mutual funds are closely related to each other and tend to have positive correlation with one another. Commodities, on the other hand, are a bet on unexpected inflation and they have a low to negative correlation to other asset classes.

Commodities have offered superior returns in the past, but they still are one of the more volatile asset classes available. Make no mistake, they do carry a higher standard deviation (or risk) than most other equity investments. However, by adding commodities to a portfolio of assets that are less volatile, you actually decrease the overall portfolio risk due to the negative correlation and in most cases increase your overall expected return.

How to Invest

Individual commodity futures are an investment for more sophisticated investors. For most investors the most suitable way to invest in commodities is through a mutual fund. They can be purchased through a 'natural-resources fund,' which buys companies associated with the mining or production of commodities, such as Exxon/Mobil or Schlumberger, to name a few. Or, commodities can be purchased through a 'raw-commodity fund,' which actually invests in commodity-linked derivative instruments backed by fixed-income investments.,

In order to get the true diversification value of commodities and the negative correlation to stock returns, you'll need to seek out funds with direct commodity investments since buying a natural-resources fund will typically just add more stock holdings to your portfolio. Two options would be the 'PIMCO Commodity Real Return Strategy Fund' (which uses the DJ-USBCI as an index) or the 'Oppenheimer Real Asset Fund' (uses the GSCI as the index). Several exchange-traded funds based on commodity indexes are being planned for the future.

The Bottom Line

During inflationary times, many investors look to asset classes like real-return bonds and commodities (and possibly foreign bonds and real estate) to protect the purchasing power of their capital. By adding these diverse asset classes to their portfolios, investors seek to provide multiple degrees of downside protection and upside potential. What is important is that you draw the line on the maximum correlation of returns you will accept between your asset classes, and choose your asset classes wisely. Given the unique negative correlation that raw commodities have to stocks and bonds, they can be a well-advised addition to almost every long-term investment portfolio.

sumber:http://www.investopedia.com/articles/trading/05/021605.asp#ixzz1oPE4qgsD 

1.    These markets are the meeting places of buyers and sellers of an ever-expanding list of commodities that today includes not only agricultural goods, metals and petroleum, but also products such as financial instruments, foreign currencies and stock indexes that trade on a commodity exchange.

Pasar ini adalah tempat pertemuan pembeli dan penjual dari daftar terus berkembang dari komoditas yang saat ini tidak hanya mencakup barang-barang pertanian, logam dan minyak bumi, tetapi juga produk seperti instrumen keuangan, mata uang asing dan indeks saham bahwa perdagangan pada komoditas pertukaran.
 2.     The DJ-USBCI on the other hand relies on both production and liquidity in determining weightings but has stricter guidelines on the maximum percentages allowed in one particular sector.

DJ-USBCI di sisi lain bergantung pada produksi dan likuiditas dalam menentukan bobot namun memiliki pedoman ketat pada persentase maksimum yang diperbolehkan dalam satu sektor tertentu.

TUGAS BAHASA INGGRIS BISNIS 2 (Neither-nor , Either-or)

Zero is not the optimal rate of inflation

Monetary policy and interest rates remain at center stage of the economic policy debate. During the last recession, the question was how fast and how low the Federal Reserve should lower interest rates. Now that the unemployment rate has fallen to a twenty-three-year low of 4.7 percent, the question has quickly become how high the Fed should raise rates.

Many economists adhere to the notion of a "natural" rate of unemployment (discussed below), and this notion is driving much of the current debate. Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan recently stated that the law of supply and demand has not been repealed, arguing that increased inflation is inevitable if the economy continues on its current course. Behind this reference lies a belief in a natural rate of unemployment, itself determined by supply and demand in the labor market.

Side by side with this belief, many economists (including most at the Fed) also claim that optimal monetary policy should aim for zero inflation. However, the claim that this is optimal is inconsistent with the theory of a natural rate of unemployment. In effect, there is an a slip between the cup of theory and the lip of policy. How are we to explain this incongruity, and what really is the optimal rate of inflation?

Competing Perspectives on the Inflation - Unemployment Trade-Off

1. NAIRU: All rates of inflation are equally optimal

The dominant economic paradigm, subscribed to by both the Fed and Wall Street, is the theory of the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU), alias the "natural" rate of unemployment. NAIRU theory maintains that if you try to push the unemployment rate below the natural rate, the result will be an increase in inflation but no permanent reduction in unemployment. This is because market forces push the economy back to the natural rate of unemployment, so that the only effect of sustained expansionary monetary policy is increased inflation. NAIRU theory, therefore, maintains that policy-makers cannot trade off a bit more inflation for a little less unemployment.

Economists label the relationship between inflation and unemployment the Phillips curve. According to NAIRU, the Phillips curve is vertical, as shown in Figure 1. Its verticality indicates that if the central bank (i.e., the Fed) increases inflation, there is no reduction in the unemployment rate. Similarly, lowering the inflation rate also has no effect on unemployment. This means that the inflation rate cannot be manipulated to lower unemployment.

The economic logic of natural rate theory is as follows: The level of employment is determined by the interaction of firms' demand for labor and workers' supply of labor. Because of imperfect information among workers regarding the location of jobs and imperfect information among firms as to who job seekers are, there is always a little unemployment resulting from some workers failing to hook up with potential employers. However, neither the demands and supplies of labor nor the pattern of information among firms and job seekers is affected by inflation. Consequently, inflation cannot affect the level of employment and unemployment, and hence the Phillips curve is vertical: Inflation simply has no effect on labor-market outcomes.

According to NAIRU theory, neither inflation nor deflation (negative inflation) has any effect on either unemployment or output. Thus, from a strict NAIRU perspective, all rates of inflation are equally optimal: Inflation simply does not matter. Although Wall Street and Federal Reserve economists may push for zero inflation, their own theoretical framework actually provides no justification for this policy stance. The implication is that they either do not understand the issue (which is unlikely) or that they are really working with some model other than NAIRU.

2. The optimal inflation rate is the actual rate

A modified version of NAIRU theory maintains that the optimal rate of inflation is the actual rate. Thus, if an economy currently has a 5-percent inflation rate, 5 percent is the optimal rate. The logic is that inflation itself does not matter, and in the long run the Phillips curve is vertical. However, lowering the equilibrium rate of inflation is costly and results in lost output.

The reason it is costly to lower inflation is that economic agents have inflation expectations, and these expectations are hard to adjust. Getting agents to lower their inflation expectations requires a period of higher unemployment, and this implies lost output. Thus, if the central bank wants to lower inflation from 5 to 3 percent, this would require a period of higher unemployment, and there would be an output cost. However, since there is no compensating benefit to reducing inflation, the implication is clear - the central bank should stick with the existing 5-percent rate.

A problem with this reasoning is that just as there is a onetime cost to lowering the rate of inflation, so too there is a onetime gain to increasing the rate of inflation. If the central bank stimulates the economy, employment and output will temporarily increase. After agents have adjusted their inflation expectations upward, the economy will then return to the vertical Phillips curve with a higher equilibrium rate of inflation. In the long run, unemployment and output will again be unchanged, but there would have been a one-time gain. Given this logic, the central bank should go on nudging the inflation rate ever upward, so that gradually accelerating inflation is the optimal policy.

3. Zero inflation is the optimal rate

Most economists adhere to NAIRU theory with its vertical Phillips curve. At the same time, many would also agree with the claim that zero inflation is the optimal rate of inflation. But these positions are inconsistent.

The claim that zero inflation is optimal implies a different model of inflation from that of NAIRU. According to NAIRU, inflation has neither costs nor benefits. However, if zero inflation is optimal, it must be the case that inflation is costly and causes lost output and increased unemployment, which is why zero inflation is preferred to non-zero inflation.

Implicit in this claim is a notion of a positively sloped Phillips curve, shown in Figure 2. Now, increased inflation causes a northeasterly movement along the Phillips curve that results in higher unemployment. The reason for this negative effect is that inflation distorts the decisions of agents by forcing them to waste resources combating its effects. As a result, profitability, output, and employment are all reduced. An analogous logic applies to deflation, which also induces agents to waste resources combating its effects. Given this, the Phillips curve is bow-shaped, and maximum productive employment is obtained at zero inflation. Zero inflation is therefore the optimal rate of inflation, since it saves households from wasting resources in combating the distortions of inflation.

4. The Keynesian Phillips curve

An alternative theory of inflation is the Keynesian Phillips curve. According to this theory, there is a negative long-run relationship between unemployment and inflation. This is illustrated in Figure 3, in which unemployment can be reduced at the expense of a little more inflation. The Phillips curve is convex, so that as the unemployment rate falls, the trade-off worsens: Further reductions in unemployment cost more and more in terms of inflation. The significance of this construction of the inflation-unemployment relationship is that the central bank now has a policy choice that involves trading off between inflation and unemployment.

The economic logic of the Keynesian Phillips curve is that "inflation greases the wheels of adjustment" in labor markets. In a dynamic multisector economy in which different sectors are subject to random shocks, there is a need to adjust sectoral prices and wages. In sectors receiving positive shocks, prices and wages are bid up; in sectors receiving negative shocks, there is a need for prices and wages to fall. However, it is difficult to get prices and wages to fall, and it may therefore be easier to accomplish adjustment by having prices rise in sectors with full employment. In this fashion, a little inflation can grease the wheels of adjustment, thereby lowering unemployment and raising output.

sumber : http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1093/is_n1_v41/ai_20485329/

*  According to NAIRU theory, neither inflation nor deflation (negative inflation) has any effect on either unemployment or output

Meaning : Menurut teori NAIRU, baik inflasi maupun deflasi (inflasi negatif) memiliki efek pada baik pengangguran atau output.